CBNRM initiatives have been included in several land and forest property regimes. Most CBNRM applies to community land, which is managed by the community itself, facilitated by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) or the State. Pindanyanga, Mucombedzi and Goba are examples of these initiatives. Other CBNRM initiatives are within forest reserves and State-owned and managed areas, such as Derre, Mecuburi and Moribane forest reserves. CBNRM initiatives have been included in several land and forest property regimes.



Most CBNRM applies to community land, which is managed by the community itself, facilitated by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) or the State. Pindanyanga, Mucombedzi and Goba are examples of these initiatives. Other CBNRM initiatives are within forest reserves and State-owned and managed areas, such as Derre, Mecuburi and Moribane forest reserves. The National Directorate of Protected Areas (NDPA) under the Ministry of Tourism is responsible for protected areas with tourism activities, such as national parks and hunting reserves. Most CBNRM initiatives are individually implemented by institutions, including State departments, NGOs and research institutions.


 International NGOs, particularly IUCN and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) play an important role in promoting community participation in NRM, and have sourced funds for CBNRM projects in community areas (e.g., Chipanje Chetu and Madjadjane) and conservation areas (e.g., Bazaruto and Gorongosa national parks). Influential funding agencies such as the World Bank, the European Union and the Government of the Netherlands have also played an important role in promoting CBNRM. This omission is intentional and designed to open up opportunities for the on-site testing of different models, from which lessons can be learned. This is because no model can fit all situations, so specific arrangements need to be established by the stakeholders. The institutions involved may include local communities, the State, the private sector and NGOs. 


In a CBNRM initiative, local communities form partnerships with at least one of these stakeholders, and more than one agency from each category of stakeholder (see Table 4) may be involved. Private investors could play an important role in supporting CBNRM. At present, most CBNRM in Mozambique is supported by short-term projects implemented by the State or NGOs. The main objective of these projects is to create community interest in protecting natural resources − through such activities as fire control, prevention and patrolling − with a view to attracting private investment (Couto, 2004). Evaluations of ongoing and terminated CBRNM projects show only limited success in fulfilling their ultimate objective of generating benefits for local communities. 


Couto (2004) suggests that this failure is the result of unclear criteria for benefit distribution among community members, and high dependence of communities and the State on benefits generated by private investors. Macome (2004) suggests that the cost-to-benefit ratio of CBNRM projects is very high; returns on investments are not reached in the short or medium term, but only in the long term, which is unsatisfactory given the immediate need to alleviate rural poverty. Although local communities are defined as groups with common interests, they tend to be very diverse and include people with very different interests and perspectives. Some authors (e.g., Macome, 2004) report that projects impose community-based organizations (CBOs) on their target communities. Some of the CBOs − NRM committees − that have been established conflict with local administration authorities, and local communities and committee members are sometimes treated as though they were project employees.


This type of relationship between communities and CBNRM projects has resulted in negative consequences, discouraging private investors from becoming involved. The NRM committee’s role within the community has not been clearly defined, resulting in the creation of elite groups. NRM committees should be made up of educated and active community members, but CBO members empowered to represent their communities may become very influential and impose their own interests beyond their mandates, resulting in conflicts within the community. Some NRM committees become to large; in Goba, for example, each of the three villages was represented by ten committee members, resulting in an extremely large and unmanageable committee. NGOs are important stakeholders in the establishment of CBNRM initiatives, because they are neutral and can facilitate relations among communities, private investors and the State.


NGOs are involved in community land demarcation, the establishment of CBOs and training in land and natural resources negotiation to ensure community benefits. Some NGOs assist rural communities in obtaining registered land-use rights as the first step towards resource ownership. Others contribute to the establishment and capacity building of CBOs. NGOs can provide a variety of services that complement the State’s creation of local capacity.


The first community forestry project in Mozambique was Tchuma-Tchato, which was established before the current Forest and Wildlife Act came into effect and is a response to conflict between a private safari operator and local communities. During the conflict resolution process, mediation helped the two parties to interact. Tchuma-Tchato is the prototype for community participation initiatives in Mozambique.